Fig. 14

LPS, peptidoglycan, VacA, and CagA are bacterial fragments from Helicobacter, and these fragments cause the release of multiple factors that take part in inflammation, apoptosis, overproliferation, and tumors through different signaling pathways including NF-κB, JAK/STAT3, MAPK, TLR4/MyD88, PI3K/AKT, NLRP3/Caspase-1, and NRF2/HO-1. ROS, reactive oxygen species; IL-6R, interleukin 6 receptor; gp130, glycoprotein 130; JAK, janus kinase; STAT3, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3; PI3K, phosphoinositide 3-kinase; AKT, protein kinase B; TLR4, toll-like receptor 4; MyD88, myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88; TRAF6, tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6; IKK, IκB kinase; IκBα, inhibitor of kappa B; NLRP3, NOD-, LRR- and pyrin domain-containing protein 3; ASC, apoptosis associated speck-like protein containing a CARD; AP-1, activator protein 1; Keap1, kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1; NRF2, nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2; HO-1, heme oxygenase-1; MKK, mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase; MEK, mitogen-activated extracellular signal-regulated kinase; MAPKK, MAP Kinase Kinase; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; ERK1/2, extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2; JNK, jun N-terminal kinase; LPS, lipopolysaccharides; CagA, cytotoxin-associated gene A protein; VacA, vacuolating cytotoxin A; NOD1, nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing protein 1; HB-EGF, heparin-binding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor; ADAM17, a disintegrin and metalloproteinase 17; EGFR, epidermal growth factor receptor; MMP10, matrix metalloproteinase 10; Apaf-1, apoptotic protease activating factor-1; IL-1β, interleukin-1β; IL-6, interleukin-6; IL-8, interleukin-8; IL-17, interleukin-17; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor α; IFN-γ, interferon γ; iNOS, inducible nitric oxide synthase; NO, nitric oxide; COX-2, cyclooxygenase-2; PGE₂, prostaglandin E₂.